TOEFL | 历史学相关背景材料+习题精炼+词汇整理

  • Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River - geographically Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt, in the place that is now occupied by the countries of Egypt and Sudan.

    古埃及是非洲东北地区的文明,在地理上被尼罗河一分为二(上埃及和下埃及),对应现在的埃及和苏丹

  • Ancient Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3100 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes (often identified with Narmer).

    埃及是人类文明主要发源地,也是地球上最先孕育出国家这个高级社会形态的地区,早在6000年前,此处便形成了上、下埃及两个独立国家

  • The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.

    古埃及的历史是以短暂动荡分隔长期稳定的历史,并以此可以划分为3个阶段。

  • Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom, ruling much of Nubia and a sizable portion of the Near East, after which it entered a period of slow decline.

  • During the course of its history Egypt was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers, including the Hyksos, the Libyans, the Nubians, the Assyrians, the Achaemenid Persians, and the Macedonians under the command of Alexander the Great.

  • The Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom, formed in the aftermath of Alexander’s death, ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.

  • The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture.

  • The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture.

  • With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance.

  • Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.

每年5月到8月,尼罗河就进入泛滥期。东非高原的肥沃黑土被河水裹挟而下,在中下游原先的沙漠平原中停滞,沉淀成大片沃土。靠着这份天赐大礼,古埃及人只需要在十月播下种子,然后几乎啥都不用干,等到来年开春过后,就可以把一年的收成轻松的拿到手。

当然,这种农耕方式可以说事极端原始、低级。不过在人类文明和技术水平超级落后的上古时期,这却也是最适合当时人类的。上古时的人类,大多还处在新石器时代后期,压根就不懂灌溉,更没什么农田水利技能,甚至连基本的手工农具都很难倒腾出来——他们总不能用石头来刨地吧!

所以,在其他地区的人类,眼瞅着大片河畔沃土却不能开发时,埃及却依靠尼罗河的馈赠,得以享受农业的果实。也正因为如此,埃及得以跳出原始部落,第一个迈入国家形态。 热带沙漠有两大特征:1,沙子流动性强,可填沟壑、却无法垒砌高山,故而地势地势平坦;2,沙漠地区普遍高温,水分的蒸发量大,而且沙质地表的渗透性强 。 这两点对古埃及文明的意义十分关键: 首先,地势平坦,故而尼罗河泛滥时,洪水能够覆盖大范围土地——倘若河流周边都是高山,水就直接流走了,无法润泽周边——埃及在上古时代就进入文明,而处在尼罗河上游的东非高原至今都相当落后,这跟二者的地貌差别有着极大关系。 其次,汛期过后,沙漠被河水裹挟的黑土覆盖,就形成了平原沃土——而这正是农作物生长的最佳条件。

当然,仅就与此,尚不足以确保埃及的崛起。还有一点十分重要:因为沙漠杨广充沛、蒸发量大,沙质地表渗透性强,以及沙子填山平壑的特征,因此汛期过后的尼罗河下游,通常不会形成特别大型的湖沼。 这一点,搁在现在也许是个极大的弊端——因为这代表着该类地区蓄水调节功能不足;但放在上古时期,这却是大大的好处。尽管湖沼可以用作蓄水调节——但前提条件是,你有能力开发利用才行。在上古,人类文明水平极端落后,压根不具备筑坝开渠的能力,所以湖沼的农业潜力压根就无从释放。 而埃及的沙漠特点,意味着尼罗河下游无法形成大型湖沼,所以河水泛滥后的流域周边,正是初级农业的最好场所。

Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 13th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (c. AD 600). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era.[1] Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the period of Archaic Greece and colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. The Hellenistic period came to an end with the conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, which established the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on ancient Rome, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe. For this reason, Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization.[2][3][4] Classical Greek culture gave a lot of importance to knowledge. Science and religion were not separate and getting closer to the truth meant getting closer to the gods. In this context, they understood the importance of mathematics as an instrument for obtaining more reliable (“divine”) knowledge.[5] Greek culture, in a few centuries and with a limited population, managed to explore and make progress in many fields of science, mathematics, philosophy and knowledge in general.

Ancient Rome According to the founding myth of Rome, the city was founded on 21 April 753 BC by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas,[12] and who were grandsons of the Latin King Numitor of Alba Longa. King Numitor was deposed by his brother, Amulius, while Numitor’s daughter, Rhea Silvia, gave birth to the twins.[13][14] Because Rhea Silvia had been raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine.

According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so he ordered them to be drowned.[14] A she-wolf (or a shepherd’s wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor.[15][14] The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over the location of the Roman Kingdom, though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to rule or give his name to the city.[16] Romulus became the source of the city’s name.[14] In order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem, in that Rome came to have a large male population but was bereft of women. Romulus visited neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables he was refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins with the Sabines.[17] Another legend, recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy, since the original was destroyed at the end of the Trojan War. After a long time in rough seas, they landed on the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, but the women who were traveling with them did not want to leave. One woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent their leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships.[18] The Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid, where the Trojan prince Aeneas is destined by the gods to found a new Troy. In the epic, the women also refuse to go back to the sea, but they were not left on the Tiber. After reaching Italy, Aeneas, who wanted to marry Lavinia, was forced to wage war with her former suitor, Turnus. According to the poem, the Alban kings were descended from Aeneas, and thus Romulus, the founder of Rome, was his descendant.

古希腊与古罗马 在3000BC左右时,诞生了早期米诺斯文明,位于克里特岛。2000~1700BC是中期米诺斯,1700~1450BC是全盛期米诺斯,而在1420BC左右,克里特岛被迈锡尼人征服,岛屿上的城市逐渐衰落。 迈锡尼人大概是在1900BC左右到达了希腊半岛,在1500BC左右统治了整个希腊半岛,在1380BC左右统治了东地中海。 在1250BC左右,爆发了著名的特洛伊战争。特洛伊(图中的Troy)在小亚细亚半岛的西北边缘,位于达达尼尔海峡旁。特洛伊战争的结果是特洛伊沦陷,不过原因并不是传说中的『帕里斯拐走海伦』,而是迈锡尼人为了争夺海上霸权,且特洛伊位于交通要道,是个繁荣富庶的城市。 同时(1250BC左右),多利安人入侵,从巴尔干半岛北部迁来。之后的斯巴达、科林斯等城邦就是由伯罗奔尼撒半岛上的多利安人建立起来的。 然而长达十年的特洛伊战争让迈锡尼人大伤元气。迈锡尼文明开始走下坡路,在1100BC左右逐渐消亡,希腊进入了『黑暗时代(又叫荷马时代)』。 黑暗时代的希腊人口急剧减少,与其他文明的联络也中断了,希腊文明几乎停滞。 黑暗时代一直持续到800BC左右,此时,希腊渐渐出现城邦国家,进入了『古风时代』。800~600BC这段时期可以说是希腊的『文艺复兴』,他们开始在海外殖民扩张,并且出现了僭主政治。斯巴达渐渐强大起来,拉拢周边的城邦组成了伯罗奔尼撒同盟。 而雅典也开始发展——600~590BC梭伦改革,508~490BC克里斯提尼改革,雅典在政治、社会、经济各个方面都取得进步,民主政治走向高峰,成为可以与斯巴达匹敌的城邦。 克里斯提尼的民主改革是预示着古风时代之终结与『希腊时代』之开端的两大事件之一。另一重大事件便是希波战争。 在550BC时,居鲁士大帝(居鲁士二世)建立波斯帝国。546BC,波斯帝国消灭了吕底亚(图中小亚细亚半岛上的Lydia),并趁机进攻小亚细亚的希腊城邦。而小亚细亚半岛西南的爱奥尼亚诸邦不愿被波斯统治,于是以米利都(图中的Miletus)为首,抵抗波斯。 米利都自知不是波斯的对手,便请求斯巴达支援,斯巴达拒不出兵。雅典与埃维厄(图中雅典北部的Euboea,在之前的图上被翻译成『优比亚』)出兵支援,但仍不敌波斯。494BC,波斯完全征服了爱奥尼亚地区,米利都被屠城。 波斯接下来就要报复希腊人了。490BC,波斯王大流士一世出兵进攻雅典与埃维厄。著名的马拉松战役就发生在这个时候,具体就不介绍了,总之雅典人击败了波斯人(斯巴达人未参战)。 十年后,480BC,大流士一世的儿子薛西斯一世为父报仇,再次进攻希腊,雅典与斯巴达联合对抗波斯。在温泉关战役中,斯巴达三百精兵与伯罗奔尼撒半岛其他城邦的七千士兵抵挡住波斯的进攻。然而在第三天,一个希腊叛徒引导波斯军队抄小路进攻希腊军队后方,希腊军队无法抵御,只留下斯巴达三百精兵誓死守卫温泉关。三百精兵全军覆没,却为希腊军队赢得了宝贵的时间。 当波斯军队进攻到雅典时,雅典人早已撤到海上,只剩下一座空城。波斯军队只好焚城泄愤,随后在萨拉米湾海战中被希腊联合海军击败。 一年后,479BC,波斯人再一次进攻希腊,而希腊人再一次使用『空城计』,再一次在海上击败了波斯人,并击毙了波斯大将。波斯人逃回东方。 479BC,『希腊时代』开始。打败波斯人之后,希腊人认识到建立共同防御组织是防止波斯人再度进攻的关键,于是在478BC,许多城邦组成防御性联盟即『提洛同盟』,以雅典为盟主。 然而很快雅典开始采取各种压迫政策,把这个自愿形成的同盟变成『雅典帝国』。 460BC,麦加拉(并未标出此地,位置在图中科林斯(Corinth)的东侧,雅典的西边)退出伯罗奔尼撒同盟,投奔雅典。以此为导火索,斯巴达与雅典之间进行了第一次伯罗奔尼撒战争。 战争一直持续到446BC,双方打了平手,麦加拉回到伯罗奔尼撒同盟,双方签订和平条约。接下来就进入了『三十年和平』时期,尽管和平只持续了15年。 431BC,以科塞拉(图中的Corcyra,巴尔干半岛西侧岛屿)与科林斯(Corinth)的冲突为导火索,提洛同盟与伯罗奔尼撒同盟再度开战,即第二次伯罗奔尼撒战争。 战争具体的过程可见修昔底德的《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》,这里就不赘述了。最后雅典惨败,于404BC签订和约,伯罗奔尼撒战争结束,斯巴达称霸全希腊。 然而斯巴达寡头政治的蛮横统治引起各城邦不满,于是许多城邦起兵反抗。379BC,底比斯(图中的Thebes,位于雅典西北方)起义,八年后击败斯巴达,成为希腊第一军事强国。 连年的战争加速了希腊的衰落,而此时北方的马其顿(图中Macedonia)越来越强大。338BC,马其顿国王腓力二世击败希腊联军,成为希腊诸城邦的主宰。腓力二世的儿子,即亚历山大大帝,于330BC灭亡了波斯,建立起横跨欧亚非的亚历山大帝国。 亚历山大大帝想征服全世界,然而却在323BC死于疟疾,还没来及考虑继承的问题。于是,中央权力迅速解体,各地总督拥兵自立,亚历山大帝国分裂。希腊时代结束,进入『希腊化时代』。 到270BC,诸多国家经过吞并战争之后,只剩下占据马其顿与希腊的马其顿王国(西北部分)、亚洲的塞琉古帝国和占据埃及与叙利亚的托勒密王朝。 264BC,第一次布匿战争爆发,布匿战争是指罗马(图中浅蓝)与迦太基(图中红色)之间的战争。『布匿』是罗马对迦太基的贬称。 第一次布匿战争(264~241BC)主要是地中海上的海战,一开始在西西里岛交战,后来罗马进攻迦太基本土,迦太基战败。 迦太基战败后,失去了西西里岛,于是向伊比利亚半岛发展。罗马警告迦太基不能越过埃布罗河(即图中迦太基在伊比利亚半岛部分的东北边界),然而汉尼拔无视警告,继续向东北进军,于是爆发了第二次布匿战争(218~201BC)。 汉尼拔穿过阿尔卑斯山,入侵罗马。而罗马则出兵迦太基本土,汉尼拔回军驰援,最终战败,丧失全部海外领地。 与此同时,罗马还在与马其顿王国打仗。不过第一次马其顿战争(214~205BC)马其顿王国取得胜利。而等罗马打完了第二次布匿战争后,再一次与马其顿王国开战。第二次马其顿战争(200~196BC)中,罗马大获全胜。 随后第三次马其顿战争(171~168BC)和第四次马其顿战争(151~146BC),罗马都取得胜利,马其顿成为罗马的一个行省。 在第四次马其顿战争的同时,罗马主动进攻迦太基,第三次布匿战争(149~146BC)爆发。迦太基惨遭屠城,据说罗马在迦太基的田野里撒了盐,让土地不能耕种,让任何生命都不能生存。迦太基也成了罗马的一个行省。 罗马征服希腊半岛,并继续向东推进。133BC,塞琉古帝国(图中黄色)把帝国西部的帕加马地区割让给罗马,随后罗马于65BC征服塞琉古帝国。 而罗马内部并不稳定。60BC,克拉苏、恺撒、庞培共同控制罗马政局,史称『前三头联盟』。53BC,克拉苏战死,48BC,恺撒在内战中击败庞培,集军政大权于一身。44BC,恺撒遇刺,罗马内战又起。43BC,安东尼、雷必达、屋大维结盟,获得统治国家五年的权力,史称『后三头联盟』。 随后,安东尼与托勒密王朝的克利奥帕特拉七世(埃及艳后)结婚,并宣称将罗马东部部分领土赐给她的子嗣,引起元老院的不满。于是,32BC,元老院与公民大会以克利奥帕特拉七世侵吞罗马人民财产为由向其宣战。30BC,屋大维打败了安东尼。安东尼逃回埃及,与埃及艳后相继自杀。 27BC,元老院授予屋大维『奥古斯都』称号,建立元首制,罗马共和国被罗马帝国取代。 然而罗马帝国的繁荣昌盛并没有持续太久。事实上,马可·奥勒留死之后,政治已经非常混乱了。到三世纪时,农村枯竭,城市衰落,内战连绵,政府全面瘫痪。这段时间(235~284)被称为『第三世纪危机』。 284年,戴克里先把元首制改为君主制,并与293年实施『四帝共治制』,戴克里先把帝国分为东部与西部,每个部分各有一位奥古斯都(正帝),每位奥古斯都任命一位恺撒(副帝)。奥古斯都在位20年后必须退位,先前的两位恺撒成为奥古斯都。 实行四帝共治并非把帝国分裂成四部分,而是把帝国的防守任务交给四个人承担,而戴克里先的地位仍然是最高的。 这套制度在戴克里先在位期间运行良好,但他退位之后便迅速崩溃……他的下一任是君士坦丁。君士坦丁任命三个儿子各统治帝国的一部分,并大兴土木,在博斯普鲁斯海峡(即伊斯坦布尔海峡)旁修建新都君士坦丁堡。同时,他在325年召开尼西亚会议,确定了许多基督教的基本交易,是第一位尊崇基督教的罗马皇帝。 最后一位统治统一的罗马帝国的皇帝是狄奥多西一世(379~395年在位)。他把基督教作为国教,认为古奥运会有违基督教教旨,废除了古奥运会。临终之时,他将罗马帝国分给两个儿子,罗马帝国分裂,,西哥特人在首领阿拉里克的领导下入侵巴尔干半岛,于410年洗劫罗马城。455年,汪达尔人首领盖塞里克联合匈人再度洗劫罗马城。在此之后,西罗马帝国已经无法维持。476年,罗慕路斯·奥古斯都被放逐,西罗马帝国灭亡,欧洲古代历史终结。