TOEFL | 社会文化相关背景材料+习题精炼
语言学 (Linguistics)
- 人类语言的特点：语言 (language) 是一种人类特有交流方式的，而动物通过交流系统 (communication system)进
行沟通。与交流系统相比，人类语言有3个独特之处：
- 学习能力(learn ability) , 语言是可以通过学习得到的，比如大家在努力学英语；
- 不连续性(discreteness) , 语言中不连续的单元可以用不同的次序组合，形成不同含义；
- 位移性(displacement) , 语言可以描述不在此时此地发生的事。
- 语言家族谱系树 (the family tree model)：世界上有超过5000种语言，但是很多语言都有相似之处。例如，闪米特语 (Sanskirt), 拉丁语(Latin) 和希腊语 (Greek), 语言学家认为这三门语言都源自于同一个母语(mother language) —— 原始印欧语(Proto- Indo- European)。
- 语言学家发展出一种标记语言演化的方法——语言家族谱系树，这种方法形象地展示了语言家族如何发展，两种之间的紧密程度。
- 格莱斯准则 (Gricean Maxims)：在人们的交流中，有一些基本的原则是不能违背的，这就是格莱斯准则 (Gricean Maxims) 。
- 质量原则(quality) , 不要说假话 ( do not say what you believe to be false);
- 相关原则(relevance) , 答案要与问题相关，说话者给出暗示 (imply), 听众做出合理推测 (inference);
- 数量原则(quantity) , 交谈的双方应该给出尽可能多的信息量。 相关 TPO 篇目： TPO9-L4,TPO19-L1,TPO20-L1 重点词条： Gricean Maxims
TPO20-L2: Gricean Maxims
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What is the main topic of the lecture?
- The reasons people are not always truthful in conversations
- The need for greater regulation of language used in advertising
- The need for maximum precision and detail in everyday conversation
- The role of certain rules in determining what a speaker means
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According to the professor, what helps speakers keep conversations from proceeding too slowly?
- The ability to make inferences according to the Gricean maxims
- The ability to effectively distinguish truth from falsehood
- The willingness to acknowledge that a Gricean maxim has been violated
- The willingness to ignore the Gricean maxims on occasion
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For each of the following, indicate whether or not it reflects one of the Gricean maxims that the professor mentions
Is a Maxim Is Not a Maxim Try to make the topic interesting. √ Avoid making claims are false. √ Make as few assumptions as possible. √ Make comments as informative as necessary. √ Make comments relate to previous statements. √ -
Why does the professor describe a letter of recommendation?
- To point out differences between written statements and spoken statements
- To illustrate how people may be deceived in a business environment
- To show how violating a maxim may contribute to a statement’s meaning
- To prove that lying is sometimes considered acceptable
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What does the professor imply about advertisers?
- They are less likely than politicians to violate a Gricean maxim.
- They realize that consumers know whether an advertisement violates a maxim.
- They often make use of the Gricean maxims to express humor.
- They realize that consumers make false inferences from advertisements.
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What type of maxim does the professor illustrate with this example: For instance, suppose you say you would really love to have a cup of coffee right now, and I say ‘there’s a shop around the corner’. Now, what can you infer from what I said?
- Manner
- Quality
- Quantity
- Relevance
TPO20-L2: Gricean Maxims
Listen to part of a lecture in a linguistics class.
| Professor: | OK, the conventions or assumptions that govern conversation- these may vary from one culture to another, but basically, for people to communicate, there’s, uh- they have to follow certain rules. Like, if I’m talking with you, and I start saying things that’re not true- if you can’t tell when I’m lying and when I’m telling the truth, well, we’re not going to have a very…satisfactory conversation, are we? Why? Because it violates one of the “ |
| Professor: | That’s a set of rules or maxims a philosopher named H. P. Grice came up with in the 1970s. One of these Gricean maxims is… well, I’ve already given you a hint. |
| Student: | Oh, you just can’t go around telling lies. |
| Professor: | Right-or, as Grice put it, “Do not say what you believe to be false. “That’s one of Grice’s maxims of quality, as he called it. So that’s pretty obvious, but there’re others just as important. |
| Professor: | Like, ah, suppose you were to ask me what time it was, and I replied, “My sister just got married.” What would you think? |
| Student: | Uh, you’re not really answering my question! |
| Professor: | No, I m not, am I? There’s no connection at all, which feels wrong because you generally expect to find one. So one important maxim is simply, “Be relevant.” And using this so-called maxim of relevance, we can infer things as well- or rather, the speaker can imply things and the listener can make inferences. |
| Professor: | For instance, suppose you say you’d really love to have a cup of coffee right now. And I say, “There’s a shop around the corner.” Now, what can you infer from what I said? |
| Student: | Well, that the shop sells coffee, for one thing. |
| Professor: | Right! And that I believe it’s open now. Because if I weren’t implying those things, my response would not be relevant. It’d have no connection with what you said before. But according to the maxim, my response should be relevant to your statement, meaning we should assume some connection between the statement and the response. |
| Professor: | And this maxim of relevance is quite efficient to use; even if I don’t spell out all the details, you can still make some useful logical inferences, namely “the shop is open” and “it sells coffee.” If we actually had to explain all these details, conversations would move along pretty slowly, wouldn’t they? |
| Professor: | OK, then there’s the maxims of manner, including things like “Be clear” and “Avoid ambiguity.” And another, more interesting maxim is one of the so-called maxims of quantity- quantity of information, that is. |
| Professor: | It says to give as much information as is required in the situation. So suppose you ask me what I did yesterday and I say, “I went to the art museum.” You would likely infer that I saw some works of art. Suppose though that I did not go inside the museum, I just walked up to it, then left. |
| Professor: | Then I’ve violated the quantity maxim by not giving enough information. So you can see how important implications are to our ability to carry on a conversation. |
| Professor: | But there are times when people will violate these maxims on purpose. Let’s say a boss is asked to write a letter of recommendation for a former employee seeking an engineering job. The letter he writes is quite brief- something like, uh, Mr. X is polite and always dresses neatly. So what does this really mean? |
| Student: | Oh, I see. By not mentioning any important qualities related to the job, the boss is, like, implying that this is the best that can be said about Mr. X- that he’s really not qualified. |
| Professor: | Exactly. It’s a written letter, not a conversation, but the principle’s the same. The boss is conveying a negative impression of Mr. X without actually saying anything negative about him. |
| Professor: | So, by violating the maxims, we, ah-it-it can be a way to be subtle or polite…or to convey humor, through sarcasm or irony. |
| Professor: | Sometimes, though, people will violate maxims for another purpose-to deceive. [sarcastically] Now, can you imagine who might do such a thing? |
| Student: | Some politicians! |
| Student: | Or advertisers. |
| Professor: | Right. Anyone who may see an advantage in implying certain things that are untrue… without explicitly saying something untrue. They think, “Hey, don’t blame us if our audience happens to draw inferences that’re simply not true.” |
| Professor: | So next time you see an advertisement saying some product “could be up to 20 percent more effective,” think of these maxims of quantity and relevance and ask yourself what inferences you’re being led to draw. |
| Professor: | Think: “More effective than what, exactly?” And why did they use those little phrases “could be” and “up to”?These claims give us a lot less information than they seem to. |
文化扩散 (Cultural Diffusion)
文化扩散是指文化现象从一个社会传播到另一个社会，下面是在托福考试汇总出现的文化扩散的
- 歌 剧 (opera)：歌剧的源头是古希腊戏剧。 文艺复兴时期，意大利人重新演绎古希腊戏剧，创造了现代歌剧。
- 歌剧传播到法国，法国人更强调其节奏和抑扬顿挫( rhythm and cadence) , 在歌剧中加入朗诵(recitative) ; 接着，歌剧被传入英国；歌剧很晚才进入美国，在美国只被精英(elitist)所欣赏，虽然很多上层人士觉得去听歌剧是被迫的。
- 茶 (tea)：茶的起源地并不确定。但是早在5000年前，茶就已经成为中国人生活的重要组成部分。
- 之后，茶传到日本 ，形成日本茶 道，成为文化象征( cultural symbol) 。
- 接着，茶传到欧洲大陆，但起初并没有引起法国、德国人的兴趣。欧洲人依然更青睐咖啡。
- 之后，茶传到英国，受到英国人的喜爱，饮茶成为人们社交(sociable) 的方式。
- 计数系统 (number system)：罗马的计数系统( Roman Numeral System) 从数字1开始，并没有数字0。这套计数系统在西欧盛行。
- 7世纪早期，数字 0产生于南亚的数 学中，之后传入中东 ( Middle East) , 被翻译成阿拉伯语(Arabic)。
- 10世纪，阿拉伯计数系统开始在中东占据主导。
- 12世纪末期，意大 利数学家斐波 那契( Fibonacci) , 将阿拉伯语翻译 成拉丁语。数字0被引入西欧，促进了科学的发展。
相 关TPO 篇目： TPO12-L3,TPO53-L3,TPO51-L2,TPO54-3 重点词条： Fibonacci, cultural diffusion
TPO54-L4: William Wheatley and Broadway Theaters
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What is the main purpose of the lecture?
- To describe the influence of opera on Broadway productions
- To explain how new technology allowed for enhancements to Broadway productions
- To evaluate financial decisions made by theater owner William Wheatley
- To examine elements that set a particular theatrical production apart from earlier ones
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What was typical of theatrical productions in the United States before the 1860s? Click on 2 answers.
- The productions originated outside of the United States.
- Only a limited segment of society attended the productions.
- People attended the productions because they were interested in the plots.
- The themes of the productions were typically related to the upper class.
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According to the professor, what was a reason for a change in theatrical productions in the United States during the 1860s?
- A growing middle class was in need of entertainment.
- Wealthy theater advocates provided additional funding for new productions.
- The interest of theatergoers shifted from opera to ballet.
- A new artistic movement was founded by a group of actors.
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Why does the professor mention moveable floorboards on the stage in Wheatley’s production?
- To explain the reason for an unexpected technical problem
- To highlight one of the production’s innovative features
- To point out a similarity between early and modern theater in the United States
- To give an example of a modification that was made for the ballet troupe
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What was the audience’s reaction to the transformation scene in Wheatley’s production?
- The audience was disappointed by the scene’s short duration
- The audience was confused by the scene’s unfamiliar elements.
- The audience was amazed by the scene-changing process.
- The audience was impressed at how quickly the stage crew moved objects onto the set.
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According to the professor, what is one way in which Wheatley’s production was different from modern musicals?
- The performers in Wheatley’s production performed more than one role.
- Wheatley’s production was created for the upper class.
- The songs in Wheatley’s production did not include lyrics.
- The musical numbers in Wheatley’s production did not correspond with the plot.
TPO54-L4: William Wheatley and Broadway Theaters
Listen to part of a lecture in a theater history class.
| professor: | One of the things New York City is known for is its Broadway theaters—big productions, elaborate |
| professor: | But theater didn’t always appeal to the masses. In the middle of the nineteenth century, it was mostly wealthy residents who were going to Broadway—they would see an opera that was probably written and produced in Europe before making its way over to New York. |
| professor: | It was a scene for, uh, well… the socially |
| professor: | But, in the 1860s, something else started to occur: the middle-class population began to grow—and they were looking for a source of entertainment. Keep that in mind while I talk about a theater owner named William Wheatley. |
| professor: | In 1866, William Wheatley had this show, uh… and it was different from most shows on Broadway at the time because it wasn’t an opera. And, it was developed right here in the United States… in English, unlike the operas, which were typically in Italian or French. |
| professor: | Wheatley also decided to incorporate some fancy production techniques—stage effects. The show also included music to make it more entertaining. And, through |
| professor: | Along the lines of those special effects I mentioned, Wheatley redesigned the entire stage for this show: every |
| professor: | While today we might |
| professor: | Another innovative element in the show was a scene called the “transformation scene.” During this scene, the audience watched in |
| professor: | Normally to have this type of major scene change, the |
| professor: | And this effect… it left a lasting impression on everyone who saw Wheatley’s production. In fact, those people were probably disappointed when they saw another show that didn’t contain something as, well… as elaborate or exciting. |
| professor: | So look, when it |
| professor: | It also went on tour, visiting different cities across the United States for over 25 years. So… the show was quite a success. |
| professor: | And with all that in mind, some people call Wheatley’s show the first musical on Broadway. Now, our current definition of a musical is that it tells a story through dialogue and song. In Wheatley’s show, the musical sections, well, they didn’t necessarily integrate well with the story, giving an overall impression of something more like a |
| professor: | Yes, everything was loosely focused around a central theme… so maybe it’s fair to say, then, that this show gave audiences a hint of a new form of musical theater that would ultimately appear on Broadway in the decades to follow. |
名人 (Celebrity)
- 哥伦布 (Columbus)：1492年，探险家哥伦布的船在加勒比(Caribbean) 地区登陆。300年后，在1792年，在Pintrad的号召之下，打造哥伦布的形象，美国人开始纪念哥伦布。哥伦布在美国历史中被看作是一个勇于挑战、脱离欧洲政治的人。虽然对他的有些描述并不属实。
- 歌德 (Goethe)：歌德是18世纪-19世纪德国著名作家，是浪漫主义运动(Romantic movement)的代表人物，代表作有《少年维特之烦恼》 (The Sorrows ofYoung Werther) 和《浮士德》 (Faust )。除了是一位作家，歌德还是一个科学研究者，而且涉猎的学科很多，比如颜色学。歌德采用希望通过 主观(subjective) 的方式理解颜色。他认为不同的颜色会激发人们不同的情感。在他的作品《色彩课程》 (ColorLesson) 中，歌德提出了红、黄、蓝是三原色(the primary colors)
- 梭罗 (Thoreau)：梭罗是19世纪美国著名作家和哲学家，代表作是. 《瓦尔登湖》 (Walden)。在书中，梭罗同时表达了对火车的赞美和批判：一方面，火车与商业和贸易有关，改善了人们的生活；另一方面，火车会扭曲(distort)人们对自然的感受，会控制(govern)人们的生活。梭罗对于新科技事物的批判性评论(critique) , 至今值得我们深思。
相关 TPO 篇目： TPO27-4,TPO39-L3,TPO41-L2 重点词条： Columbus, Goethe, Thoreau, Walden
TPO41-L4: Analysing the Ownership of Artworks
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What does the professor mainly discuss?
- The process art historians use to determine who created Renaissance artworks
- Whether collaborative artworks are superior to those produced individually
- The way that art was created during the Renaissance
- The development of artistic individuality during the Renaissance
PS：A项，文章是在说为什么hard to determine归属权，而不是在解释如何determine归属权
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According to the professor, what factors may have led to a Renaissance artist’s decision to hire assistants? Click on 2 answers.
- The number of commissions an artist accepted
- The scale of the project to be completed
- The amount of money to be paid for the project
- The amount of advice needed from other artists
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Why does the professor mention someone who painted animals in Raphael’s workshop?
- As an example of how artists learned by painting real-life models
- As an example of paintings that were copied from sculptures
- As an example of how assistants specialized in different types of painting
- As an example of how an assistant introduced an artistic innovation
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According to the professor, how is a building project like a ballet?
- Strong leadership is necessary to coordinate the work.
- Everyone needs to be aware of what the others are doing.
- The result depends on the level of skill of each person involved.
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Why does the professor mention that in architecture, instructions were usually given orally? Click on 2 answers.
- To emphasize that architectural designs were constantly changing
- To demonstrate the extent of the collaboration between master architects and their assistants
- To explain why there is little documentation for many projects
- To stress the difficulty in determining any given artisan’s contributions to a project
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What does the professor imply about the process of producing architecture collaboratively?
- It was a result of patrons’ believing in an architect’s individual genius.
- It resulted in extra expense for the patrons.
- It often resulted in less innovation than the architect intended.
TPO41-L4: Analysing the Ownership of Artworks
Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.
| Professor: | OK, as art historians, one of our fundamental tasks is to assign |
| Student: | Um, is it because artists didn’t sign their work? I mean, didn’t hold the concept of the artist as an individual developer later, in like the nineteenth century? |
| Professor: | Well, |
| Professor: | But artists, individual artists, did sign their work during the Renaissance. In fact, you could say that’s part of the problem…Paintings were signed by the artist, and that used to be understood to be a mark of Renaissance |
| Professor: | If a piece had |
| Professor: | But you see, art in Renaissance Italy was very much a collaborative business. Painters and sculptors worked in a |
| Professor: | An-and this was especially so if they worked on a large scale, huge paintings or sculptures, or if they were much in demand, like Raphael for instance. He worked on some large paintings: He painted |
| Professor: | Now, these assistants might work for the master artist on a temporary or a permanent basis, and they might also specialize. For example, in Raphael’s workshop, which might be called “Raphael Incorporated,” one of the assistants specialized in animals. |
| Professor: | He actually painted a good number of the animals in Raphael’s art. It may be that a master signing a work was simply making a |
| Professor: | And it wasn’t just painters. Sculptors also worked together; in fact, assistants were even more necessary if you were a master sculptor, because statues take longer to make than paintings. And the master had to arrange for marble to be |
| Professor: | Perhaps the most collaborative of all was architecture. There we see a real division of labor, what with |
| Professor: | Think of it like, uh, a ballet, you know? All the dancers work together. There’s a division of labor, people have different roles, and in order for the thing to come together, everyone needs to be aware of what others are doing, and coordinate their work, and have good timing. |
| Professor: | So for architecture, it’s almost impossible to know who was responsible for any given detail.Was it the master architect? The mason? An assistant mason? Maybe it was even the |
| Professor: | Remember, it wasn’t yet |
| Professor: | The only time we have written records is when the architect wasn’t actually there-perhaps the architect was away on business, and had to write out instructions and send them to the shop. |
| Professor: | And another thing to think about: what effect do you suppose this approach would have had on innovation? I mean, since the hired artisans had been trained by other artisans, they tended to be trained to use traditional styles and techniques. |
| Professor: | So if you’re a master architect, um, and you’ve developed your own style-say you’re calling for a certain detail in a building you’re designing, right? And say this detail is different-purposely different-from the established tradition, the established style. |
| Professor: | Well, most likely, when the hired artisans would execute the design, rather than follow the intended design, they’d |
| Professor: | [disappointed] Otherwise, as often happened, there goes the designer’s style and creativity. |
文学体裁 (Genre of Literature)
- 佳构剧 (Well-made Play)：佳构剧是戏剧的早期形式，在19世纪的法国获得了商业上的成功。佳构剧要求戏剧的5个必备要素(necessary elements)按照特定顺序排列(in a particular order), 所有情节在逻辑上紧密相连(logically connected)。佳构剧是现实主义戏剧的基础，也对今天的电影情节产生了影响。
- 民间传说 (folk legend)：民间传说的最大特征在于以真人真事(real people and real history) 为基础，带给我们真实感。
- 民间故事 (folktale)：民间故事是经过口述(orally) , 代代相传的古老故事 (traditional stories), 会随着时代发生改变，是属于某一群体的 (communal) 。 民间故事是想象出来的(imaginative) 故事，不具有真实性。
- 民间故事更注重情节，有具体的时间和地点，语言随意(less formal), 同一个故事会有不同版本。
- 挪威民间故事(Norwegian folktale) 的三种类型很好的体现了民间故事的三种类型：
- 动物的故事 (animal stories), 例如狐狸骗熊钓鱼
- 超自然故事 (supernatural), 例如王子变成青蛙
- 滑稽故事 (comical stories) Comical stories can contain supernatural aspects, but they are usually more playful and amusing overall than supernatural stories.
- 童话故事 (fairy tales)：相比于民间故事，童话故事真实性更低(less realistic), 经常出现王室成员(royalty), 比如青 蛙变成王子。童话故事不再具有群体性，属于全世界。童话故事更注重细节描述，没有确切的时间和地点，语言更正式，会有知名作家编写的权威版本(authoritative version), 例如安徒生 (Anderson) 童话，格林 (Grimm) 童话。
- 中世纪诗歌 (Medieval poetry)：香颂(Chanson)是一种中世纪(Medieval)诗歌，曾经在欧洲，特别是法国十分流行。香颂为骑士(knight)和领主(lord)所创作，由游吟诗人(minstrel) 传唱，描述骑士们的英雄事迹(heroic deeds),歌颂骑士的英勇(bravery)和忠诚(loyalty),让骑士和领主认为爱国行为(patriotism)是高尚(noble)的。
- 浪漫诗歌 (Romance Poetry)：浪漫诗歌出现的比香颂更晚。浪漫诗歌中描写的骑士是孤独的(solitary) , 在诗歌中描述了骑士的内心情感(inner feelings)—— 骑士努力完善自己，证明自己值得女士的青睐。
相关TPO 篇目： TPO5-L6,TPO7-L2,TPO13-L3,TPO20-L3
重点词条： minstrel, folktale,fairy tale
TPO20-L4: Folk Tales
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What is the lecture mainly about?
- The role played by folktales in contemporary Norwegian society
- A description of the major types of Norwegian folktales
- A comparison of Norwegian folktales and Norwegian folk legends
- An illustration of the differences between oral literature and written literature
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What does the professor find appealing about folk legends?
- They are very imaginative.
- They are somewhat realistic.
- They stress what is important in a culture.
- They show similarities between otherwise diverse societies.
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How is the story of the bear and the fox characteristic of Norwegian animal stories?
- It explains the origin of a physical characteristic of an animal.
- It uses animal behavior to explain human characteristics.
- It shows how animals were domesticated by people.
- It contains episodes of animals changing into people.
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Why does the professor mention a folktale called “East of the Sun and West of the Moon”? Click on 2 answers.
- To point out conventions found in most folktales
- To point out differences between animal stories and comical stories
- To give an example of a transformation story
- To give an example of a story published in the first collection of Norwegian folktale
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What does the professor say about the characters in Norwegian folktales?
- They usually behave in playful and amusing ways.
- They usually behave the way that real Norwegian people behave.
- Most are giants, trolls, or dragons.
- Most are based on actual historical figures.
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What does the professor imply happened as a result of the Romantic movement’s spreading to Norway?
- Children’s literature became less popular.
- Attempts were made to modernize the plots of traditional folktales.
- Folktales began to be regarded as an important aspect of Norwegian culture.
- Folktales in Norway became more similar to folktales from other parts of Europe.
TPO20-L4: Folk Tales
Listen to part of a lecture in a literature class.
| Professor: | Alright, so now we’ve talked about |
| Professor: | The particular stories might not be true, and some of the characters or events might be made up, but there’s still a sense that the story could have been true, since it’s about a real person. |
| Professor: | That’s a distinct contrast from the other main branch of popular storytelling, which is |
| Professor: | Folktales are imaginative stories that um, like folk legends, they’ve been passed down orally, from storyteller to storyteller, for, since ancient times. But with folktales, you don’t ever really |
| Professor: | They’re purely imaginative, and so quite |
| Professor: | There are, in general, |
| Professor: | The point of these stories, their, their internal objective, so to speak, is usually to |
| Professor: | The second category of Norwegian folktale is the |
| Professor: | There’s a well-known Norwegian supernatural folktale, a transformation story called “East of the Sun and West of the Moon”. Which we’ll read. It involves a prince who’s a white bear by night and a human by day. And he lives in a castle that’s east of the Sun and west of the Moon- which the |
| Professor: | Besides being a good example of a transformation story, this one also has a lot of the common things that tend to show up in folktales. You’ll find the standard opening “Once upon a time…,”. |
| Professor: | And it has stock characters like a prince and a poor but beautiful |
| Professor: | And it’s, the story is presented as though, well, even though a lot of the actions that occur are pretty fantastic,so you’d never think of it as realistic, the characters still act like, they |
| Professor: | They’re not real, or even based on historical figures-but you might have a supernatural story involving a king, and he’d act like you’d expect a Norwegian king to act. |
| Professor: | Ok, the third main kind of folktale is the comical story. We’ll say more later about these but for now, just be aware of the category and that they can contain supernatural aspects, but they’re usually more playful and amusing overall than supernatural stories. |
| Professor: | Now, as I said, traditionally folktales were just passed down orally. Each generation of storytellers had their own style of telling a story. But um… in Norway, before the nineteenth century, folktales were just for kids, they weren’t seen as worthy of analysis or academic attention. |
| Professor: | But this changed when the |
| Professor: | As a result, the first collection of Norwegian folktales was published in 1852. And there’ve been many new editions published since then. For the people of Norway, these stories are now an important part of what it means to be Norwegian. |
